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As indicated above, the seller provides a unit of product/service to the customer, who returns a unit of resource to the seller. However, in an educational marketing model, the exchange is indirect.
External Relations Program for Public Accountability
Donald W. Poucher Director, Educational Media and Services Institute of Food
and Agricultural Sciences University of Florida, Gainesville
Relevance of the Land Grant System
“The Land Grant System to many people may seem like the Homestead Act -- far away and long ago and not very relevant. Fundamentally, the Land Grant System is in an epic, or life and death, competition for the hearts and minds of Americans. Ultimately, that translates into political and financial support of those Americans.
... The Land Grant System, like all other American institutions, must reposition and redefine itself, its mission and its delivery on that mission in an America that is reinventing itself. Values are evolving, priorities are shifting, we are approaching zero based public policy. That means public policy that says in effect, ‘ Don’t tell me what you did for me yesterday, tell me what you’ll do for me today and tomorrow.’
... We are swimming against some very strong currents. Federal funds are being redirected, state and local funds are under unprecedented pressure.
... Beneath all the competition for support, there beats an ever-growing mantra of relevance, relevance, relevance! ... We are suffering from a reputation deficit. Reputation is equal to sound performance that’s well communicated and appreciated.
... We’ve done well on performance. But now we need to significantly boost the communications part of the equation.”1
The comments above are those of John Paluszek, CEO of Ketchum Public Affairs
in New York City. Mr. Paluszek
was retained by the Cooperative Extension Service and the Cooperative State
Research Service to study the Extension
Service/Experiment Station parts of the land grant system. Paluszek is correct!
Land Grant University programs
address some of the most pressing problems facing society today. But the truth
is, public perception lags and it lags
because we fail to communicate an awareness of the programs, how those programs
can be accessed by customers,
and the benefits those programs provide to individuals and to our communities.
We can all point with pride to isolated
successes where communication has occurred and programs have been recognized
for the benefits that they provide.
However, in general, we do a very poor job of communicating the benefits of
our research and education programs to
the people we serve. Furthermore we often fail to communicate that the University
and the cooperating partners are
the ultimate provider of the programs that serve our communities.
Purpose
The purpose of this program is to assist you in enhancing external relations programs that help build and maintain public accountability with the people who can influence your future. The intent is to provide ideas and information to help you build an understanding among customers that the land grant programs of your University are active and relevant to fulfill current needs and wants of people and communities. Effective communications, as a part of the accountability process, must be utilized if we are to increase our presence throughout the state and nation and succeed in connecting the success of local programs with our Universities.
What is Marketing?
“Marketing” is often used as a descriptor of what in reality is an external
relations program for public accountability. While external relations is a part
of the marketing process, marketing is much broader than external relations.
Marketing is not selling; it is not media hype. Marketing is assessing, developing,
packaging, pricing, communicating
and promoting, and distributing. Marketing makes it all work together, to effect
an exchange.
Drucker has documented that marketing makes selling superfluous2. He effectively
advances the proposition that
if a program has been designed according to the needs of the marketplace, selling
the program to the marketplace will
be unnecessary. Kotler and Fox in their book on institutional strategic marketing
embrace Drucker’s concept and point
out that only by fulfilling the needs of customers can an institution or business
effectively market itself.
As consumers recognize their problems and needs, they will seek help in solving
these problems and fulfilling
those needs. Those products, services and programs offering the best solutions
or need fulfillment are the ones most
likely to be embraced by the clientele. Effective marketing involves translating
marketplace problems and needs into
programs to fulfill those needs and informing the clientele of the programs
and how they may be accessed. The
programs, however, sell themselves because they are solving real problems and
meeting real needs of clientele. The
programs are customer-driven. Their success in the marketplace is a product
of successful exchanges...to receive in
exchange for a unit with value, resources of equal value.
The process of understanding, planning and managing exchanges begins with a
basic mission statement of the
seller. We are asking several questions, the answers to which provide the beginnings
of a mission statement. What is
our business? Who is our market? What are the market needs? How can we fulfill
those needs? Once we have answered the basic questions, we are in a position
to analyze our market, refine our mission and goals consistent with
the market needs, develop programs to fulfill the market needs, package the
programs, develop our distribution
strategy and select customer access channels, implement an effective communications
strategy, and complete the
exchange.
The purpose of this program is not to describe in detail how to apply the complete
marketing process to program
development and implementation. Decades of experience at needs identification
and program development based on
needs should serve us well in those parts of the marketing process.
The purpose of this program becomes one of describing the exchange process
and how that process affects
external relations and thus, a major part of the marketing mix: communications
and customer awareness.
The Exchange
No marketing plan is successful unless it provides for an exchange of needs/wants
fulfillment for unit of resource.
However, the nature of educational funding differentiates us from the business
model. In a business model, the
exchange is a direct one.
| |
As indicated above, the seller provides a unit of product/service to the customer, who returns a unit of resource to the seller. However, in an educational marketing model, the exchange is indirect.
 |
As can be seen in the educational model, the indirect nature of the exchange
is based on the fact that units of
resource flow from the customer indirectly through a third party. We are therefore
dependent on the positive feedback
from the customer to the resource provider. The positive feedback must stimulate
in the resource provider a desire to
reward us with a unit of resources to accommodate the costs of the educational
program. The exchange process can be
interrupted where customer response is negative, or where customers fail to
identify the University as the source of
the program. Thus, the importance of the communications strategy is underscored.
It is not enough for programs to
solve problems or meet needs. The programs must clearly bear the identity of
the University unit providing the
program, and the identity must be so dominant and emphatic as to survive the
indirect nature of the exchange and
help generate a measure of credit back to the unit.
Communications Strategy
Our major communications objective is to relate the value of our programs to
customers and potential customers
and how these programs may be accessed. Programs, no matter how well planned
and developed, will succeed only if
accompanied by an effective communicative strategy.
The success of any communication strategy will depend on our ability to recognize
and adapt to the challenges
and realities of the information age, as opposed to a previous era of standardized
procedures and practices of a mass
society. According to Judith Waldrop, writing in the December 1990 issue of
American Demographics,4 everyone will
soon belong to a minority group. The diverse needs and habits of the market
may in some cases dictate flexibility to
provide for mosaic consumption patterns as opposed to mass consumption patterns.
An information age dichotomy is a fragmented mass market of the past as identifiable,
dissimilar, yet overlapping
constituencies, each of which may need the same information in a slightly different
form and at a different time than
the others. Therefore, the communications process now becomes a series of dissimilar
constituent-specific tasks, all
variations of the same theme. Complete reliance on a single strategy ignores
the diversity that exists in today’s world
and increases the chances of failure.
Market segmentation and positioning are also important in developing communication strategies. Positioning depends on market segmentation. Only by remembering the market segment for which we’ve designed the program can we effectively position ourselves within a given market segment as the provider of the program to meet a specific need. We are talking about appeal and perception. The niche we want a given homogenous group to perceive us to occupy determines how we appeal to that group to access or use our program.
How do we position ourselves among diverse markets? The problem becomes one
of developing a position
statement that reflects the diverse perceptions of our customers. With the help
of research we can understand how we
are perceived by our different clientele. We can quantify the perception, and
ultimately verbalize it.
Central to the information age is a rapid proliferation of media and media
habits which creates a situation where it
is no longer feasible to rely on a single communication strategy for reaching
the marketplace. For example, future
technology will allow newspaper subscribers to order only the news that interests
them. Snyder and Edwards, writing
about America in the 1990s,5 point out that America spent more than $400 billion
during the 1980s on new information technology. This technology will enable
people to depend more on computer printouts than books as sources for
reading material. Hyperinformation systems, or knowledge navigation, will permit
users to build multi-data relationships that can be uniformly managed and accessed
according to interest and need. So-called “smart TVs” will know
what people want to watch before they are turned on. In the final analysis,
to properly communicate the values for our
programs and how to access them, we must be attuned to the media selection and
use-habits of our customers and
potential customers.
What is External Relations?
External relations programs for public accountability include three major elements: impact statement development, positioning and communications, and personal contact.
Effective impact statements provide the basis for the public accountability. Every program has economic, environmental and/or social impacts. These impacts must be identified and included in effective statements that describe the benefits of the program.
Effective positioning and communications are important in establishing a consistent institutional look, consistently applying institutional identity standards, consistently communicating institutional mission and program impacts, and consistently positioning the institution with general and specific publics.
An effective personal contact program provides the vehicle for developing
and maintaining positive relationships with decision makers and other important
members of local, state and national boards and authorities. The
personal contact program includes recruiting, training and engaging volunteers/customers
who have been selected for
their ability to work with decision makers and other important audiences.
The External Relations Team
The success of the external relations program for public accountability is
dependent on the effective interaction of
a team of administration, faculty and staff, and customers/volunteers. The administration,
in the form of the Vice
President and Deans, must chart the course and direction of the external relations
program. Other administrators, in
the form of County Extension Directors, Center Directors and Department Chairs,
must occupy a leadership role in
motivating local volunteers/customers and involving them in the process. Faculty
and staff must assume responsibility
for helping develop program impacts and assessments, identifying key customers/volunteers
to be involved in the
contact program, and in helping to conduct on-going communications programs
and other methods of informing
customers/volunteers, legislators, and the general public. Customers/volunteers
are asked to maintain direct contact
with decision makers to keep them informed and involved.
Developing Program Impact Statements
The development of believable, defensible program impact statements is critical
to increased public accountability. The official mission statement only generally
describes the University. The programs that support the organizational vision,
mission, goals and objectives and the impacts of those programs provide the
real ammunition for
communicating success and relevance.
Inputs and Outputs vs. Outcomes
The litany of vision, mission, goals and objectives becomes meaningless without
programs and program impacts
to back it up. Specifically, we must quantify how we are expanding the profitability,
global competitiveness and
sustainability of industry; we must describe how we protect and sustain the
natural resource and environmental
systems of communities; we must detail how we enhance the development of human
resources; we must demonstrate
how we are improving the quality of human life.
We must back up our statement of vision, mission, goals and objectives with
specific program examples of how
all of these tie to local communities, economies and cultures. We must develop
impact statements that capture the
results of our programs and their accomplishments and benefits on behalf of
local citizens.
In the past, inputs and outputs have been all too often used to describe the
various benefits of programs and their
impacts on local citizens. We have cited the numbers of hours spent conducting
a program by faculty and staff,
number of volunteers contacted or enrolled in a program, number of publications
produced, or number of telephone
calls received. However, we have failed to relate the outcome of the publications,
telephone calls, the volunteer
enlistment, or the faculty hours spent on a given program. Depending on the
program, we must develop economic
impacts, social impacts, and environmental impacts as appropriate.
Effective Positioning and Communications: Image, Identity and Public
Accountability
An external relations plan is based on clear definitions and understanding
of the “product.” The mission, vision
and strengths define our product. No matter what variations within the organization
- different programs, different
counties, different personnel -- the mission, vision and strengths remain the
same. They form the image we want the
public to see and understand. They must be communicated in a consistent manner
by a multitude of voices, each a
variation of the same theme.
Most diverse organizations situated at far-flung locations sometimes have an
identity problem. We tend to see our
organization in light of our specific role, our county, our center, our department,
or our program. Sometimes it helps
to take a step back and look at the work of the organization as a whole. We
respond to anything from an urban gardening problem to nutritional education
to an environmental disaster, or newly emerging industry problems. Our response
can save someone’s business or someone’s life. To the audiences we serve, our
image is as clear as our most recent
service to them. The gardener thinks we’re knowledgeable and responsive; limited
resource families value our nutritional programs; the agricultural producer
realizes we can mobilize key groups; the 4-H volunteer is sure we save
entire generations. All of those impressions are good, but how can we help these
audiences tie it all together? And
how do these images align with actual programs?
We have many diverse publics. But if you divide our customers into four major
groups -- the general public,
subject matter customers, decision makers and media -- do they all have the
same collective image of the University?
Or are they widely diverse? Is our image among these clientele consistent, accurate
and up-to-date?
Organizational identity is defined as the company’s overall definition, direction
and distinctiveness as perceived by its
various clientele. Businesses struggle daily to project a unified, clear, accurate
image of what they do, what they stand for
and why they are unique. The University is no different. Research has indicated
that growing numbers of people do not
understand that the state university is a land grant institution and it provides
research and educational programs in agriculture, natural resources, and human
resources. If you were to survey your local residents, would they know of our
relationship
with your University? What about our ties with communities and regions? Our
future depends upon how successfully our
institutions can develop a clear organizational identity that identifies with
local people and demonstrates public accountability. Our signs, materials and
other communications often project a splintered organization. Just looking through
various
phone books can reveal a fragmented organization through a lack of consistency
in listings throughout the state.
Each faculty member needs to realize that he or she has a part in projecting
public accountability as a unified,
research-based educational system backed by the land grant university. Do we
project ourselves as a part of the
university, or as a part of county government? Or, another research or departmental
unit?
All program areas should have two goals in their communications efforts: to promote the university first, and to promote local identity second. Once we can develop and articulate a clear organizational image and identity, the next step is positioning: developing a strategy that places or positions the University in the minds of people as a valuable source of information and education.
Finding Your Niche in the External Relations Plan
“Positioning” is a word used to describe how an organization wants to be identified
by its target audiences. A
position is established by identifying the unique strengths that separate an
organization’s educational mission and
programs from the mission and programs of other organizations. This position
occupies a public accountability niche
in the educational marketplace that includes strengths and selling points that
the competition cannot claim. All
communication efforts and accountability material should reflect the strengths
and unique position of the University.
In Florida, we want to position each department unit, center, or extension office
as:
the University of Florida, providing an impact in (subject) in (location).
Positioning Statement
University of Florida (UF) and volunteers have many opportunities to explain
the organization to the public.
Before addressing an audience, introducing a program, meeting with other groups,
explaining UF to visitors or in
other situations where it is appropriate, develop a simple descriptive statement.
Here’s a suggested statement that conforms to university-wide positioning and
goals:
“The (department, unit, center, or extension office) is your University of Florida, providing an impact in (subject) in (location).”
Targeting Audiences
Faculty and staff deal with people all day long.Do we make every contact
count? Every conversation, every
mailing, every outreach should build awareness and public accountability.
Before you can build a relationship with any individual or audience, you should
think about the purpose of that
relationship. Each level of involvement fits into one of three categories: knowledge,
preference or commitment.
On a personal basis, think of it this way: You’d like people in your community
to know who you are, you’d hope
your friends prefer your company and you expect your family to be committed
to you. It’s the same level of relationships for dealing with various publics.
We need a general awareness of our services among the people in our counties
and communities; we want to instill a preference for our programs among our
clientele; and we want a commitment
from decision makers. From some groups such as the media and certain leaders,
we want different levels of support
on different issues. When planning to build a relationship with someone, you
should decide what you want and expect
from the contact. Each level requires a different approach.
As a relationship moves from interest to loyalty, the best method of reaching
that audience shifts from mass media
to targeted media to personal contact. In other words, don’t rely on
mass media to tell your entire story and don’t
expect word-of-mouth to sell your programs to the general public. And when you
need a commitment, nothing
replaces personal contact.
For key audiences, you must develop a personal contact program. Don’t leave
these relationships to chance.
Decide who your target audiences should be, what level of involvement you want
and how to reach that level. For
instance, your goal is to seek a commitment from volunteers. Mass media might
recruit some people and volunteers
might put their skills into practice by handling a radio interview. But these
mass media outlets probably won’t build
commitment from volunteers.
Targeted media, like a volunteer newsletter, has more possibilities. You can
highlight programs, thank them and
keep them informed.
However, if you want real commitment, you should give personal attention to
volunteers through staff meetings,
telephone calls and individual sessions.
Personal Contact Program
Leaders at every level rely on friends, neighbors, colleagues and associates,
and volunteers for advice and assistance in the decision making process. Therefore,
local citizens who occupy positions of influence with decision makers can be
the most effective communicators with the decision makers. These local citizens
(and frequently our customers) are the key to maintaining consistent, year-round
contact with decision makers. The external relations program for public accountability
seeks to identify and enlist citizens as volunteers who can communicate with
decision makers based on educational interests or concerns, local issues, and
shared community involvement. It is important for faculty and staff to understand
that it is the cadre of volunteers and customers who will maintain direct contact
with decision makers to help facilitate and increase accountability.
Those volunteers/customers will be asked to make contact with an identified
decision maker, encourage them to
attend programs and activities of the extension office or research center, help
find ways to get that decision maker
involved with local programs, and be prepared to contact that decision maker
to discuss issues and concerns throughout the year.
Identifying Volunteer/Customer Prospects
The first step in enlisting volunteers/customers is to develop a list of prospects from which appropriate volunteers can be identified for contact with specific decision makers. There are several questions that we must ask in identifying prospects:
The first place to look for volunteers is those listings of customers/clients served by your programs. Of those listings, we can then identify other qualifiers such as those who have worked for decision makers in the past; those who have worked for decision makers’ parties; those who are friends, relatives and acquaintances of the decision makers; key members of the decision makers’ campaign organization; those people who attend meetings, coffees, and other functions on behalf of decision makers; and those who have contributed personal funds or have raised funds from others for the decision makers’ campaign.
Qualifying the Contact Volunteer/Customer
Once we have listed all the potential volunteer/customer contacts, the next
task is to rate each of the potential
volunteer/customer contacts on an appropriate scale based on individual circumstances.
For example, in the case of
one volunteer, we may find that we can uncover only three solid ties between
the volunteer and the decision maker. In
that case, the maximum number of points to be awarded to a potential volunteer
would be three. In cases of other
volunteers, there may be five factors that can be used to link them with decision
makers. In every case, the goal is to
identify volunteers who have the most substantial ties to decision makers and
then set about enlisting those volunteers
in the contact program. The act of qualifying the volunteers also serves another
purpose: it automatically counterparts
volunteers/customers with decision makers and provides the basis for assigning
volunteers/customers to appropriate
decision makers.
Supporting the Volunteers/Customers
It is important that volunteers/customers receive a thorough briefing on the
external relations program and that
they understand what they can expect of faculty and staff and what we expect
of them. Specifically, volunteers/
customers are to serve as a direct means for maintaining year-round communications
and contact with decision
makers. While the county and center directors and faculty and staff provide
the support and the communications
information, it is the volunteer/customer who must make the front line approach
to decision makers and maintain the
direct contact with them. While techniques and frameworks for managing the volunteer/customer
contacts will vary
from county to county or center to center, several elements must be included
to ensure on-going success.
Profiling Decision Makers
Effective communication to increase public accountability requires that we
know and understand our audiences.
Therefore, to ensure successful communication with decision makers, we must
learn as much as possible about their
needs, likes and dislikes, media habits, levels of community involvement and
favorite issues.
Collect important data on each decision maker (address, phone, children’s ages,
occupation, educational background, hobbies, organizations, viewpoints on educational
issues, involvement with the University, names of secretary
and staff members, favorite issues, legislative committee memberships, other
anecdotal information). The profile
should be shared with the volunteers/customers who may also have additional
information. The profile should be
updated as often as necessary to maintain current and accurate information.
Master File
A master file of each appropriate decision maker should be developed including
the profile as previously described, the year’s planned contacts, and reports
of progress filed by the volunteer/customer contact. All copies of
correspondence sent and received and description of personal visits should also
be a part of this file.
Establishing the Contact
Several types of communications can be effective in building relationships
with decision makers. Personal
meetings are obviously most effective.
On the local level, volunteers/customers can easily develop and maintain on-going
personal relationships with
decision makers and these relationships should be developed primarily at a time
when there is little need px">(i.e., before
you have a problem to discuss). Therefore, when problems do arise and you do
need assistance from decision makers,
they can be called in a personal manner to discuss the problem.
Legislative and congressional relationships are best developed by volunteers/customers when state and federal decision makers and staff are visiting the local district. Volunteers/customers can meet decision makers over lunch, through civic groups, in their offices or by inviting them to attend and participate in your programs in their district. In these personal meetings, it is important that volunteers/customers be positive and constructive in their remarks and be well-prepared with factual material. They should help make the decision makers feel they are benefiting from the relationship and are receiving reliable information on issues. The major function of faculty in the relationship with the volunteers/customers is to provide as much information to the contact person as possible and keep adequately prepared for the on-going relationship with the decision maker.
Maintaining the Contact Program
It is important that year-round contact be planned. Face-to-face visits, correspondence,
and direct involvement in
educational programs must be thoroughly and completely planned for each decision
maker and corresponding volunteer/customer contact.
Personal Visits
Face-to-face visits should always include appointments. Each visit should be
pre-planned to determine most
important issues to be discussed, views to be presented and facts, figures,
impact statements and other evidence to be
used as back-up. Often, one page information summaries of a program that the
volunteers/customers can discuss with
the decision maker or staff member are useful. The visit should be short and
to the point and information presented
should be factual, accurate, and relevant. Visits should be followed-up with
thank-you notes that reiterate the key
points and should be included in each decision maker’s contact program as on-going
throughout the year. One-shot
visits are not effective.
Working with Staff
Most decision makers have one or more staff assistants to help them keep track
of issues and to conduct the
business associated with that particular office. Often, staff take over the
role of meeting and talking with constituents.
Volunteers/customers should be encouraged to seek out the staff of decision
makers and identify them by areas of
specialty. Where possible, staff should be cultivated as important allies and
tools of delivering information to the
decision maker. Staff often have the hottest line to the decision maker and
they often know more about issues than the
decision maker. Staff also answer phone calls and open mail for decision makers
and keep lists of people who call or
write the decision maker often. The people who frequently call or write are
the ones to whom decision makers turn
when they need to know constituent viewpoints on issues.
Assessing and Reporting
Regular and accurate assessments and reports from volunteers/customers will
provide the external relations
program with up-to-date information on public accountability progress. This
information will serve as the basis for
targeting special communication activities and events designed to enhance the
effort of volunteers/customers. It is,
therefore, critical that faculty and staff work with volunteers/customers to
ensure that they maintain up-to-date
information as to the result of contact activity with decision makers. Faculty
and staff are encouraged to pass that
information back to the administration for utilization in on-going external
relations program assessment and fine
tuning. All information received from decision makers through the contact program
is important and should be
appropriately communicated as quickly as possible. Shifts in positions, reactions
to public sentiment, progress (or
lack thereof) on legislative or congressional issues; and significant awards
and recognition received by decision
makers are examples of information to be passed back to the administrative team.
Summary
The land grant system must expand on-going external relations programs for
public accountability. Targeting
general and specific audiences, these programs must communicate and demonstrate
impacts, values and benefits of
research and education programs for local citizens. Never in the history of
the land grant program has there been a
greater need to increase our accountability among customers and decision makers.
A 1993 Gallup Poll, commissioned by the Experiment Station Council on Policy,
documented that nearly half of
the respondents did not know for certain that there was a land grant agricultural
research program being conducted at
a state university within their respective states. Many of our customers are
unaware of the impacts and benefits of
local programs. Many of our customers are unaware that those programs belong
to the University. Furthermore, local,
state and federal officials are generally unaware of programs being conducted
in their districts. When asked to support
programs, officials, at best, only are marginally aware of the University much
less exhibit any detailed knowledge of
its mission, programs, and benefits.
To increase accountability, therefore, is the primary goal of an external relations
program, through which we must
accomplish three major objectives: create an awareness of programs; communicate
benefits of programs to all customers, potential customers, and officials at
all levels; and inform potential customers how they may access needed
programs.
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge assistance from many different directions in pulling
together the information presented in this External Relations Program for Public
Accountability. Dave King and Joy Pherson at Purdue University
were of tremendous benefit in helping us understand the P-CARET volunteer program
in Indiana. Additionally, we
acknowledge the CARET Organization for valuable information contained in itsMember
Handbook. Further, we
appreciate the assistance of Scottie Butler and Dennis Emerson at Florida Farm
Bureau Federation for providing
information from their “Young Farmer and Ranchers Program.” We also express
our appreciation to Dr. Gene Trotter
with the Florida Leadership Program for Agriculture and Natural Resources, Barry
Jones and Texas A&M University,
Janet Rodekohr and the University of Georgia, and Gwil Evans and Oregon State
University. Special thanks go to
Julie Graddy, Ami Neiberger, and Kathryn Schreyer of the University of Florida,
Institute of Food and Agricultural
Sciences, Educational Media and Services for helping to compile the information
presented here.
Notes
1 Paluszek, John. 1992. The Land Grant System in a Changing World: Perceptions,
Images and Reputation as Seen by
an Outsider. New York, NY: Ketchum Public Affairs.
2 Drucker, Peter F. 1973. px">Management: Task, Responsibility, Practices.
New York, NY: Harper & Row. pp. 64-65.
3 Kotler, Philip and Fox, Karen F.A. 1985. px">Strategic Marketing for Educational
Institutions. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. pp. 7-8.
4 Waldrop, Judith, “You’ll Know the 21st Century When...”American Demographics,
December 1990. p. 26.
5 Edwards, Gregg and Snyder, David Pearce, “America in the 1990s,” p. 9.